Enhancing engagement and motivation

Physical activity levels in older adults influenced by a range of psycho-social factors that affect engagement and motivation. Understanding these factors is crucial for designing effective interventions to promote physical activity among older adults. Older people often have high dropout and non-adherence rates to different exercise programs due to lower self-efficacy in overcoming barriers to maintaining a physically active lifestyle (Mullen et al., 2013). Several socio-cognitive theories explain positive or negative changes in the behaviour of physical activity, taking into account environmental or personal variables in different populations. It seems however, that another important psychosocial factor that may affect physical activity in older adults is stereotypes.

Psychological Theories in Promoting Physical Activity

Table 1 summarizes the psychological theories mentioned above and their application to promoting physical activity in older adults. Socio-cognitive theories provide valuable insights into how motivation and behavioral change can be promoted in older adults. Two widely used frameworks in understanding health behavior change are the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Transtheoretical Model.

The Theory of Planned Behavior posits that intention is the primary predictor of behavior, influenced by three factors: a) attitudes toward the behavior, b) subjective norms, and c) perceived behavioral control. For older adults, perceived behavioral control is often a significant factor due to physical limitations or chronic conditions. However, enhancing perceptions of control, such as by emphasizing activities that accommodate various levels of ability, can improve engagement. For instance, a study by Conn et al. (2003) found that perceived behavioral control, along with behavioral beliefs, plays a significant role in predicting physical activity behavior. The findings suggest strategies to enhance perceived control can effectively promote exercise among older adults.

The Transtheoretical Model conceptualizes behavior change as a process through stages: 1) pre-contemplation, 2) contemplation, 3) preparation, 4) action, and 5) maintenance. People that don’t even think to change their behaviour are in the pre-contemplation stage. People that have been successfully through all the stages have changed their behaviour and are in the maintenance stage. Older adults may move more slowly through these stages due to accumulated health concerns or lower confidence in physical capabilities. Tailored interventions that recognize their current stage of readiness, and gradually build up motivation through small, achievable goals, have shown effectiveness. For example, research by Ratz et al. (2020) demonstrated that web-based intervention effects on physical activity stage, partly mediated by changes in task self-efficacy, intention, and action planning.

According to Self-Determination Theory, three basic psychological needs drive motivation: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In the context of physical activity, promoting autonomy through choice, fostering competence by matching activities to skill levels, and enhancing relatedness through group exercises can significantly increase engagement. Older adults often prefer activities where they feel a sense of mastery, and enjoy activities that allow for social interaction. Therefore, programs should aim to meet these needs by offering a range of options and opportunities for skill development.

The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory underpins the differences in motivation for physical activity between younger and older adults. It suggests that as people age, their motivational focus shifts from acquiring knowledge and future-oriented goals to seeking emotional satisfaction and present-oriented goals. This theory has important implications for promoting physical activity in older adults. While younger adults may engage in exercise for long-term health benefits, older adults are more likely to be motivated by activities that provide immediate pleasure, social connections, or stress relief. Programs that emphasize the enjoyment of physical activity, such as group exercises with a social component or activities conducted in a scenic outdoor setting, are likely to be more appealing. In a study by Zimmer et al. (2023), older adults who participated in group-based activities reported higher levels of motivation and greater adherence compared to those who exercised alone, supporting the idea that social interactions play a critical role in sustaining physical activity.

Group activities may also enhance social support, which is a significant factor influencing physical activity in older adults. It can come from family, friends, or organized groups, providing encouragement, accountability, and companionship. Research shows that older adults who perceive higher levels of social support are more likely to participate in physical activity (Zimmer et al., 2023). Social support can also mitigate barriers, such as fear of injury, by fostering a sense of safety in numbers.

Stereotypes and Their Impact on Physical Activity in Older Adults

The limitations of functionality constitute an obstacle to the independent living of elderly individuals who are unable to meet the demands of daily life due to physical or cognitive restrictions and disability. The lifestyle of an elderly person is also shaped by the perceptions and stereotypes about aging that may prevail in the society in which they live. The age of over 65 is a period of life with much more free time, as it marks the phase of retirement and the gradual transition to a life with far fewer obligations. An elderly person could use this free time for physical activities they enjoy or to adopt new social roles. However, negative social stereotypes about aging may lead in the opposite direction, causing the elderly individual to limit both their social and physical activity, and instead of adopting new roles, they may end up withdrawing from social roles altogether. Table 2 summarizes common stereotypes and typical strategies to counter them.

A common stereotype is that older adults are "frail" or "physically weak." Such beliefs can foster a "culture of sedentary behavior," where older individuals avoid physical activity due to fear of injury or a perception that exercise is "not suitable" for their age. This can lead to a cycle of inactivity, where the lack of physical activity results in diminished physical fitness, further reinforcing the stereotype and increasing the fear of injury.

Research indicates that older adults often internalize these stereotypes, which can lead to "self-fulfilling prophecies." For example, Levy et al. (2002) found that older adults who held negative beliefs about aging were more likely to experience functional decline over time. Addressing these stereotypes is essential for encouraging older adults to remain active and challenge preconceived notions about their abilities.

Another prevalent stereotype is the notion that certain types of physical activity are not suitable for older adults, who should instead focus on "gentle" or "restorative" activities. While low-impact exercises like walking, stretching, and yoga can be beneficial, this mindset can discourage older adults from participating in more vigorous or varied forms of exercise, such as strength training or aerobic activities. However, studies have shown that older adults can safely and effectively engage in higher-intensity activities when these are appropriately adapted. For instance, resistance training has been shown to improve muscle mass and functional capacity even in adults over 70 years old (Fiatarone et al., 1990).

Gender-related stereotypes also influence physical activity behaviors in older adults. Older women may face social expectations that steer them away from certain activities, like weightlifting, that are perceived as "masculine." Similarly, older men may feel less inclined to participate in activities like yoga or dance, which are often stereotyped as "feminine." Such beliefs can limit the range of activities that older adults feel comfortable engaging in. Addressing gender stereotypes requires promoting inclusivity in all forms of physical activity and emphasizing that exercise can be tailored to meet individual needs, regardless of gender. Community programs that highlight the diverse benefits of various activities for both men and women can help break down these barriers.

Stereotypes about aging and physical activity can have a profound impact on the behavior and health of older adults. By addressing these stereotypes and creating supportive environments that promote diverse forms of physical activity, practitioners can help older adults overcome barriers and lead more active, fulfilling lives. Below are typical strategies that could challenge the ageism stereotypes, while Table 3 includes physical activity interventions that should not only motivate older adults to engage in physical activity, but also address the above stereotypes.

Strategies for Addressing Stereotypes

• Education and Awareness: Education programs that emphasize the benefits of physical activity for older adults of all ages and abilities can help reduce the impact of stereotypes. Public health campaigns showcasing older adults who engage in diverse forms of exercise can challenge myths about age-related limitations.
• Adapting Activities to Be Inclusive: Programs should be designed to cater to different fitness levels and offer modifications to make activities accessible to everyone. This approach allows individuals to experience success at their own pace, which can help to dispel negative stereotypes about their capabilities.
• Social Support and Community Engagement: Social environments can influence physical activity participation. Older adults are more likely to engage in exercise if they feel supported by peers and instructors. Group activities that combine social interaction with physical exercise can create a welcoming atmosphere that encourages older adults to challenge stereotypes and explore new forms of movement.